Focus on Western Hemlock

Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) is one of the most delicate and beautiful conifers of the Pacific Northwest. For all its beauty, the hemlock is a humble tree. While the firs and spruces point their rigid leaders skyward, the top of the hemlock droops in a most self-deprecating manner. Its sprays of needles have a tendency to delicately droop in a similar way, often adorned with tiny cones. These hemlocks also tend to live a humble life for many years, living in the shadow of tall Douglas firs. Eventually some event may remove the dominant Douglas fir, giving the hemlock a chance to grow tall and flourish.

Hemlock History

Hemlocks originated in Asia around 30 million years ago. At one time, they were common throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Eight species remain, four in North America and four in eastern Asia. Two are native to the Pacific Northwest: western hemlock and mountain hemlock. One unexpected detail about hemlock relationships: The two species that are native to the east coast of the U.S. and Canada are more closely related to the hemlocks of Asia than to the Pacific Northwest natives.

Appearance

Needles: The short, flat needles of western hemlock are variable, as suggested by its scientific name, heterophylla. While the needles tend to lie flat, they do so grudgingly, sometimes refusing to at all and growing helter skelter all around the twig, pointing in any direction. The needles also vary in length, but each needle consistently displays a dark green upper surface and two white bands on the lower surface.

New and old cone

Cones: Western hemlock cones confirm its humble reputation. The cones are less than an inch long with rounded, thin scales. On the other hand, the tree is a prolific producer of cones. You can often find them even on the lower branches. If you look closely in the spring, you may also find some tiny pollen cones hiding in the needles. The seed cones open in the fall and drop their seeds. Each seed has a small wing attached and can travel over a mile in a strong wind. Old cones often remain on the tree for another year. If you don’t see any cones on the tree, look on the ground. It is often covered with a layer of old cones.

Pollen cones

Bark: The gray bark develops small furrows on large trees. Hemlock bark is thin and does not protect the tree from fire like the bark of Douglas fir.

Where it grows

Western hemlock is the state tree of Washington. It is common in the western parts of both Washington and Oregon, especially thriving in wet regions. It grows at lower elevations and up to 4000 feet, where it is replaced by mountain hemlock. Two adaptations enable western hemlock to thrive: It is shade tolerant and its seeds can germinate in organic material.

Unlike Douglas fir, which requires bare soil for its seeds to germinate, western hemlock seeds will germinate in soil with a thick organic cover. You will even see a young western hemlock growing on a rotting stump or log. You can recognize older trees that started on these "nurse logs" by the airborne roots that continue to straddle the absent nurse log long after it has rotted away.

Western hemlock growing on stump near a large Douglas fir

Western hemlock is one of the most shade-tolerant trees in the Northwest. Once a seedling is established, it can survive for years, growing slowly in the shade of large Douglas firs. A Douglas fir cannot live forever, and it cannot reproduce in a dense forest with no bare soil where the seeds can germinate and not enough sunlight for them to grow. Eventually, the old Douglas firs will die and the western hemlock will have their place in the sun. Then they can grow faster than a Douglas fir. Given enough time, western hemlock always wins in any competition with Douglas fir. Then the hemlock forest can grow and regenerate in perpetuity until a catastrophic fire burns all the trees and creates conditions for a new generation of Douglas fir to grow.

Along the coast, western hemlock competes with Sitka spruce. While the spruce are dominant at lower elevations where they tolerate salt spray, as the elevation increases, so do the hemlock, often becoming a pure stand. You can see this transition clearly if you hike the trails above the Visitor Center at Cape Perpetua on the Oregon Coast.

A western hemlock can grow to 200 feet tall with trunks over 8 feet in diameter. After 300 years it stops growing taller, but can live another 200 years. The oldest is over 700 years old, located in the Queen Charlotte Islands.

Uses
The first inhabitants of the Pacific Northwest made many uses of western hemlock. The inner bark was a source of tannin, used in tanning hides. They used dye from the bark to color baskets and wool. They carved the wood into tools and spoons. The branches were used as bedding material, a good thing to remember if you are ever lost in the woods. Alaska natives made bread from the inner bark. Coastal tribes placed branches in tidal waters to collect herring eggs.

Framing for a deck

Today, western hemlock is an important timber species, used to make lumber and plywood. You will often find lumber at your local lumber yard that is sold as “Hem-Fir,” indicating that it is either hemlock or fir. The white, soft wood is easy to work with and stain to any color, which makes it an ideal choice for baseboards, door and window casings, and other mouldings. The pulp is used to make high-quality paper and is the source for making cellophane, rayon, and plastics. Western hemlock is a popular landscaping tree, both in its native range and in many locations around the world. David Douglas introduced western hemlock to Britain after he discovered it growing in the Pacific Northwest in 1826. 

Many wildlife species depend on western hemlock for food or shelter. Deer and elk browse the needles. Snowshoe hare, rabbit and mountain beaver browse the seedlings. Deer mice and many species of small birds eat the seeds. Western hemlock provides habitat for the northern spotted owl, northern flying squirrel and red tree vole. Cavity-nesting birds also use the trees.

Names
The common name arose because the smell of crushed hemlock foliage is similar to that of poison hemlock, an unrelated herb native to Europe and the bane of ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. The genus name, Tsuga, is Japanese  for “mother tree” and the name of the native hemlock in Japan. The species name, heterophylla, comes from Greek for "variable leaves" and aptly describes the variable length and orientation of western hemlock needles. If you think of the needles as being heterogeneous, you can remember the scientific name. Other common names: Pacific hemlock and West Coast hemlock.

Western hemlock on Elk Mt. west of Forest Grove, Oregon 

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More info and sources

Conifers of the World, James E. Eckenwalder

A Phylogenetic Analysis of Species Relationships in Hemlocks, the Genus Tsuga (Pinaceae),

Northwest Trees, Stephen F. Arno and Ramona P. Hammerly
http://www.conifers.org/pi/Tsuga_heterophylla.php

http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_1/tsuga/heterophylla.htm

http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tsuhet/all.html
"A Phylogenetic Analysis of Species Relationships in Hemlocks, the Genus Tsuga (Pinaceae)" Jordan David Baker (http://dc.etsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3143&context=etd)

Focus on Douglas Fir

The Douglas fir is an extraordinary tree. It is the state tree of Oregon and the most common tree in the Pacific Northwest. But to call it “common” belies its uniqueness. It is quite distinct from the true fir trees and quite unlike any other conifer genus. Its unique cones with their three-pointed bracts distinguish it from other trees. The thick, deeply-furrowed bark sets it apart from other northwest conifers. And its soft, bottle-brush needles and long pointed buds make it easy to distinguish from all the other conifers of the region.

The unique features of Douglas fir presented a puzzle to botanists for years. It has been called a pine, hemlock and spruce. Its scientific name changed 21 times as botanists attempted to determine how to classify the species. Although it has blisters in its young bark like the true firs, in many other respects it is quite unlike the firs. The cones look and behave more like hemlock or spruce cones than fir cones. But the three-pointed bracts on the cones and the thick bark clearly distinguish it from the hemlocks and spruces. In 1867, it was classified not as a fir, hemlock or spruce, but in a separate genus of its own, Pseudotsuga. Finally, after many more years of discussion and confusion, Pseudotsuga menziesii was adopted as the species name in 1953.

Ancient History

Pollen cones

The first Pseudotsuga evolved in northern Mexico about 50 million years ago. Douglas fir is closely related to the larch genus, which evolved from the pines. Douglas fir either branched from the same pine ancestors or from the larch. In either case, the two took quite different evolutionary paths, the larch becoming deciduous with bundles of needles, and Douglas fir growing evergreen needles that resemble those of the spruce.

After its departure from the larch, Douglas fir began a long journey north, with some branching off to southern California to a separate species that we now know as bigcone Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga macrocarpa). As the name implies, they have larger cones than the Douglas firs of the Northwest, although the trees are usually much smaller. Meanwhile, the trees that continued their migration to the Pacific Northwest became what we know as Douglas fir. It may seem odd to speak of trees migrating. They generally stay rooted in one spot. Yet even though the trees themselves don’t travel, their winged seeds do. When the cones ripen and open, they release seeds that flutter to the ground like tiny helicopters. Let’s just suppose that in 100 years a tree grows to be 100 feet tall and produces seeds the are blown 100 feet from the tree. Thus, the forest will move 100 feet in 100 years, or on average, a foot per year. At that rate, it would take about 5000 years to migrate one mile. It may seem impossible for this forest to migrate all the way to Oregon, until you consider that it had 50 million years to make the trip. At the conservative rate of one mile every 5000 years, these seemingly steadfast trees could travel 10,000 miles. And that is exactly what they did. Not content to linger in Oregon and Washington, they continued right up the Pacific Coast to Alaska and across the land bridge to Asia and all the way to south-central China. Along the way changing conditions led to several distinct species now growing in China and Japan.
Meanwhile back in the Pacific Northwest, Douglas firs have adapted to different conditions here. As they did so, they branched into two varieties:

• Coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) grows in western Oregon and Washington from sea level up to 5000 feet. It also grows along the coast of British Columbia and in the coastal mountains and Sierras of California.
• Rocky Mountain Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) grows from central Oregon to the northeast corners of Oregon and Washington between 2000 and 7000 feet. The needles of this variety tend to be blue or gray compared to the coastal form. The bark is darker, and the bracts tend to protrude outward from the cones. This variety also grows throughout the Rocky Mountains up to elevations of 9700 feet. It grows even higher in the White Mountains of California, up to 10,000 feet. The highest growing trees of the species are in Arizona and Mexico, growing up to 10,700 feet.

Douglas fir is historically a fire-dependent species. Since it is not shade tolerant, it depends on fire or some other disturbance that opens up the canopy and leaves bare soil for its seeds to germinate. Once established, Douglas fir can dominate a stand of forest for several hundred years. Its thick bark helps it resist fires that often kill other conifers. Barring another disturbance, shade-tolerant trees such as western hemlock growing in the understory will eventually become dominant. Douglas fir is widely planted in many locations around the world, where it is grown for timber. Europe has more stands of Douglas fir than any other introduced species. The species has also been planted in a number of locations in the Southern Hemisphere, most notably in New Zealand, where it is sometimes considered to be invasive.

Discovery and Names
Archibald Menzies introduced Douglas fir to the scientific world when he found it growing on Vancouver Island and retrieved specimens in 1791. Menzies didn't collect any seeds or cones, but David Douglas collected Douglas fir seeds in 1826. These seeds introduced the cultivation of Douglas fir in England. Douglas is honored in the common name for Douglas fir. Menzies is honored by the scientific name, menziesii. The genus name, Pseudotsuga, means "false hemlock." Botanists often write the common name as "Douglas-fir" to indicate that it is not a true fir. Other common names: Oregon pine, red fir, and red spruce.

Big Tree at the Oregon Caves

Old Giants
Coastal Douglas firs can live to be 1300 years old, and commonly reach an age of 750 years. The oldest tree on record grew near Mount Vernon, Washington. It was about 1400 years old when it was cut down in 1913. The tallest tree in the world is a redwood that is 379 feet tall. But a Douglas fir that was cut down in 1902 near Vancouver, British Columbia measured 415 feet tall. Another tree cut down in Whatcom County in Washington in 1897 was reported to be 465 feet tall. The tallest living Douglas fir is a 327-foot tree growing in Coos County, taller than any conifer in the world except for the California redwoods. Another notable Douglas fir is the Big Tree at the Oregon Caves National Monument. It is 13 feet in diameter, but only 160 feet tall. You can find some fairly large Douglas firs in Portland's Forest Park, the largest next to the Stone House at mile 5.5 on the Wildwood Trail.

Uses Douglas fir is the Northwest's most important timber tree. Its strength makes it ideally suited for structural timbers and framing lumber in home construction, and its fast growth make it a favorite of foresters. If you live in a wood-framed house, it was very likely built from Douglas fir lumber. The species is also a popular Christmas tree, mostly because it is typically less expensive than other species.

Standing Douglas fir trees also provide a home for many animals and birds. Many cavity-nesting birds nest in Douglas fir snags. The red tree vole lives in mature Douglas fir trees, usually spending its entire life in a single tree, where it feeds primarily on the needles, and builds a nest high in the tree. Several individuals often inhabit a single tree. The red tree vole is a major food source for the spotted owl, which also nests in mature Douglas fir forests. The marbled murrelet is a sea bird that nests on large limbs of old Douglas firs.

Douglas squirrel with cone cob

After Douglas fir cones open and disperse their seeds in the fall, small mammals and birds eat most of the seeds. While the chipmunks and mice compete for these seeds, one notable denizen of Douglas fir forests takes its seed consumption to a higher level. This enthusiastic consumer of Douglas fir seeds is the Douglas squirrel. These squirrels harvest the cones before the seeds are dispersed. One will cut off a nearly ripe cone, scramble to a favorite branch, deftly cut away the cone scales and eat the seeds in a matter of five minutes. You can often find the results of this orgy in large piles of the scales and cone cores or what I call “cone cobs.” But the Douglas squirrel is not just a seasonal consumer of Douglas fir seeds. It will cut down quantities of cones and cache them in a wet place on the ground for winter consumption. If you listen carefully, you may hear the distinctive call from a squirrel high in the tree claiming ownership of cones, tree, and forest.
Since Douglas fir trees are so ubiquitous in the Northwest, you will have no trouble finding them whenever you hike in the woods. Look for the thick bark and check on the ground for cones with three-pointed bracts. And listen for the sharp call of the Douglas squirrel. They may have no title or deed, but they know that the forest belongs to them.

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More info and sources

http://nwconifers.com/nwlo/douglas-fir.htm

http://blog.oregonlive.com/terryrichard/2010/03/doerner_fir_rises_327_feet_int.html

http://www.conifers.org/pi/Pseudotsuga_menziesii.php

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_fir

Douglas-fir: The Genus Pseudotsuga by Denis P. Lavender and Richard K. Hermann, 2014, Oregon, Forest Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis. Available online here:

http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2014/aug/new-book-details-world-wide-research-douglas-fir

Haunted Hikes by Andrea Lankford (Big Tree info)

Mindful Hiking

Wildwood Trail in Forest Park

"I am alarmed when it happens that I have walked a mile into the woods bodily, without getting there in spirit. In my afternoon walk I would fain forget all my morning occupations, and my obligations to society. But it sometimes happens that I cannot easily shake off the village. The thought of some work will run in my head, and I am not where my body is; I am out of my senses. In my walks I would fain return to my senses. What business have I in the woods, if I am thinking of something out of the woods?" - Walking, Henry David Thoreau

Do you enjoy hiking? What is it about the experience that you enjoy? Is it the challenge of reaching the top of a mountain or the goal of reaching some scenic destination?  Is it the exhilarating feeling you get from the exercise or the social aspect of being with friends? In my youth, I considered hiking to be the initial and easy part of conquering a mountain. I remember one occasion when we met some people who were “just hiking.” No one in our group could figure out why they were even there. However, the next day after the climb, I hiked out with two other people. One of them insisted that we maintain a distance of at least 200 yards between ourselves. This was my introduction to a new dimension of hiking, one with a focus on what you see and hear on the hike.

Starflower

That hike was the beginning of a new quest: a different approach to hiking that focuses on what I now call mindful hiking, that is, hiking with the focus of your full attention on the present experience of the natural environment. Well, how do we manage to engage in mindful hiking? As a first step it requires excluding distractions from cell phones, portable music players, and other electronic gadgets. Other people can be a distraction, talking about the movie they saw, the restaurant where they had lunch yesterday, their favorite football team, or the latest middle-east crisis. But the most insidious distractions are the silent distractions of the mind — the project you’re working on at work, the trip you’re planning next month, the game you watched last night, the boat you want to buy. Becoming mindful of your present environment requires that you remove or ignore these distractions.

So, how do we do overcome these distractions? Well, we can control many of the physical distractions. We can turn off the cell phone and put away the music player. The mental distractions are more difficult. You can’t focus on not thinking about them. That, too, is a distraction. The only strategy is to fix your attention of the present experience of the natural environment — the shape and color of the leaves on the trees, the way the light filters through the trees, the way the branches sway in the wind, the sound of the call of the chickadees and nuthatches, the texture of the bark on the trees, the moss and the ferns growing along the trail, the smells of the woods and wildflowers.

Townsend's Chipmunk

Hiking itself can also be a distraction, especially if the trail is rough and demands your attention, or you are focused on the athletics of hiking. The answer is to slow down, pay more attention to what you encounter on the journey and less attention to getting to the destination. Henry David Thoreau and John Muir both recommended sauntering over walking and hiking. Better yet, just stop. The most rewarding hikes are ones where you stop to observe a bird foraging in the understory or look closer at a favorite wildflower growing along the trail. Sometimes the best way to observe wildlife is to stop, sit quietly and wait for it to come to you.

Pacific Silver Fir Pollen Cones

One final distraction can be the most difficult one to avoid. I call it the self-awareness distraction. It’s what happens when you think to yourself, “Hey, I’m focusing on nature, now.” When you do that, you stop focusing on nature and start focusing on yourself focusing on nature. Mindfulness described in certain types of meditation does focus on our own sensations and perceptions, often an attentive focus on breathing. But mindfulness of nature has its focus elsewhere. That’s not to say that these approaches to mindfulness in meditation are wrongheaded. It’s just that mindfulness of nature falls apart when it takes this turn and becomes focused on itself. Whatever the benefits are of this type of meditation, they interrupt the focus on nature and ultimately fail to reap the rewards of mindful attention to nature. So stop thinking about breathing. Your body will manage that without you thinking about it. You can be free to focus on what you see, hear and smell around you. Focus on that squirrel you hear scrambling up a tree. See if you can spot it looking down at you.

Mindfulness of nature involves a focus on the natural environment, but it is a particular kind of focus. This focus on nature is characterized by curiosity, knowledge, and wonder. Almost everyone at least has some appreciation of the beauty of nature. But this level of appreciation can be quite superficial. Curiosity can take us deeper. It leads us to look more closely and to notice new details and relationships.

Pygmy Owl

Curiosity, when it is exercised, produces knowledge. The more you learn about the natural world, the more nature draws you in and the more curiosity and then wonder drive you to learn more and increase your attention to new observations of even more subtle distinctions. For instance, when you see cones under a conifer, they won’t mean much to you until you learn the differences between Douglas fir cones, hemlock cones, and spruce cones. When you learn to recognize the call of a chickadee or a nuthatch, then whenever you hear one you will feel like you are meeting an old friend. These differences help you identify the trees and birds, but noticing the differences also deepens your experience of these natural wonders.

The more you learn, the more your attention to nature will be rewarded. The reward is the joy of the experience of beauty. It brings healing to the mind that transcends psychotherapy, drug therapy, and perhaps even inward meditation. So when you are out hiking, be mindful of your environment. You will be rewarded.

"Nature is ever at work building and pulling down, creating and destroying, keeping everything whirling and flowing, allowing no rest but in rhythmical motion, chasing everything in endless song out of one beautiful form into another." - Our National Parks, John Muir

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